Tibet

 

Historical background

After the Mongol Prince Köden took control of the Kokonor region in 1239, he sent his general Doorda Darqan on a reconnaissance mission into Tibet in 1240. During this expedition the Kadampa monasteries of Rwa-sgreng and Rgyal-lha-khang were burned, and 500 people killed. The death of Ögödei the Mongol Qaghan in 1241 brought Mongol military activity around the world temporarily to a halt. Mongol interests in Tibet resumed in 1244 when Prince Köden sent an invitation to the leader of the Sakya sect, to come to his capital and formally surrender Tibet to the Mongols. The Sakya leader arrived in Kokonor with his two nephews Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ('Phags-pa; 1235-80) and Chana Dorje (Phyag-na Rdo-rje) (1239-67) in 1246. This event marked the incorporation of Tibet into the Mongol Empire.
By the early 18th century, the Qing Dynasty sent resident commissioners (amban) to Lhasa. Tibetan factions rebelled in 1759 and killed the resident commissioners after the central government decided to reduce the number of soldiers to about 100. The Qing army entered and defeated the rebels and reinstalled the resident commissioner. The number of soldiers in Tibet was kept at about 2,000. The defensive duties were assisted by a local force which was reorganized by the resident commissioner, and the Tibetan government continued to manage day-to-day affairs as before.
In 1904, a British mission, accompanied by a large military escort, invaded Tibet, forcing its way through to Lhasa. The head of the mission was Colonel Francis Younghusband. The principal motivation for the British mission was a fear, which proved to be unfounded, that Russia was extending its footprint into Tibet and possibly even giving military aid to the Tibetan government. But on his way to Lhasa, Younghusband killed 1,300 Tibetans in Gyangzê (as written in "The Great Game" of Peter Hopkirk), because the natives were in fear of what kind of unequal treaty the British would offer the Tibetans. Some documents claim that 5,000 Tibetans were killed by the British army.
The Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906 recognized Chinese sovereignty over the region ^[2] and the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, without Beijing's acknowledgement, recognized the suzerainty of China over Thibet.^[3] The Qing central government established direct rule over Tibet in 1910. The thirteenth Dalai Lama fled to British India in February, 1910. In the same month, the Chinese government issued a proclamation deposing the Dalai Lama and instigating the search for a new incarnation.^[4]
The subsequent outbreak of World War I and civil war in China meant that the Chinese factions only controlled part of Tibet. The government of the 13th Dalai Lama controlled Ü-Tsang (Dbus-gtsang) and western Kham, roughly coincident with the borders of the Tibet Autonomous Region today. Eastern Kham, separated by the Yangtze River was under the control of Chinese warlord Liu Wenhui. The situation in Amdo (Qinghai) was more complicated, with the Xining area controlled by Chinese Muslim warlord Ma Bufang, who constantly strove to exert control over the rest of Amdo (Qinghai).
In 1950, the People's Liberation Army of the People's Republic of China entered Tibet, after taking over the rest of China from Republic of China during the five years of civil war. In 1951, the Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet, a treaty signed by representatives of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, provided for rule by a joint administration under representatives of the central government and the Tibetan government. Most of the population of Tibet at that time were serfs, bound to land owned by lamas. Any attempt at land reform or the redistribution of wealth would have proved unpopular with the established landowners. This agreement was initially put into effect in Tibet proper. However, Eastern Kham and Amdo were outside the administration of the government of Tibet, and were thus treated like any other Chinese province with land reform implemented in full. As a result, a rebellion broke out in these regions in June 1956. The rebellion eventually spread to Lhasa, but was crushed by 1959. The 14th Dalai Lama and other government principals fled to exile in India.
Beginning in the 1950s the Central Intelligence Agency trained Tibetans as paramilitaries.

 

Positions on the status of Tibet

The status of Tibet before 1950, especially in the period between 1912 and 1950, is largely in dispute between supporters and opponents of Tibetan independence.
According to supporters of Tibetan independence, Tibet was a distinct nation and state independent before conquest by the Mongol Empire and subsequent incorporation into the Yuan Dynasty 700 years ago; between the fall of the Mongol Empire in 1368 and subjugation by the Qing Dynasty in 1720; and again between the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912 and its incorporation into the PRC in 1951. Moreover, even during the periods of nominal subjugation to the Yuan and Qing, Tibet was largely self-governing. As such, the Central Tibetan Administration (CTA) views current PRC rule in Tibet as illegitimate, motivated solely by the natural resources and strategic value of Tibet, and in violation of both Tibet's historical status as an independent country and the right of the Tibetan people to self-determination.^{[citation needed]} It also points to PRC's autocratic and divide-and-rule policies, and assimilationist policies, regarding those as an example of imperialism bent on destroying Tibet's distinct ethnic makeup, culture, and identity, thereby cementing it as an indivisible part of China.^{[citation needed]}

A Free Tibet logo

On the other hand, opponents say that the PRC rules Tibet legitimately, by saying that Tibet has been an indivisible part of China de jure since Mongol (Yuan) conquest 700 years ago, and that all subsequent Chinese governments (Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty, Republic of China, and People's Republic of China) have succeeded the Yuan Dynasty in exercising de jure sovereignty and de facto power over Tibet. In addition, they say that China (under the Republic of China government) continued to maintain sovereignty over Tibet between 1912 and 1950; no country gave Tibet diplomatic recognition; and Tibet itself acknowledged Chinese sovereignty by sending delegates to the Drafting Committee for a new constitution of the Republic of China in 1925; to the National Assembly of the Republic of China in 1931; to the fourth National Congress of the Kuomintang in 1931; to a National Assembly for drafting a new Chinese constitution in 1946; and to another National Assembly for drafting a new Chinese constitution in 1948.^[6] Finally, the PRC considers all movements aimed at ending Chinese sovereignty in Tibet, starting with British attempts in the late 19th century and early 20th century, to the CTA today, as one long campaign abetted by malicious Western imperialism aimed at destroying Chinese integrity and sovereignty, thereby weakening China's position in the world. The PRC also points to what it calls the autocratic and theocratic policies of the government of Tibet before 1959, as well as its renunciation of South Tibet, claimed by China as a part of historical Tibet occupied by India, as well as the Dalai Lama's association with India, and as such claims the CTA has no moral legitimacy to govern Tibet.

Positions on Tibet after 1950

Tibetan exiles generally say that the number that have died in the Great Leap Forward, violence, or other unnatural causes since 1950 is approximately 1.2 million.^[7] However, this number is controversial, and the government does not agree to it. According to Patrick French, a supporter of the Tibetan cause who was able to view the data and calculations, the estimate is not reliable because the Tibetans were not able to process the data well enough to produce a credible total, with many persons double or triple counted. There were, however, many casualties, perhaps as many as 400,000.^[8] This figure is extrapolated from a calculation Warren W. Smith made from census reports of Tibet which show 200,000 "missing" from Tibet.^[9]
Even anti-Communist resources such as the Black Book of Communism expresses doubt at the 1.2 million figure, but does note that according to the Chinese census, the total population of ethnic Tibetans in the PRC was 2.8 million in 1953, but only 2.5 million in 1964. It puts forward a figure of 800,000 deaths and alleges that as many as 10% of Tibetans were interned, with few survivors.^[10] Chinese demographers have estimated that 90,000 of the 300,000 "missing" Tibetans fled the region.^[11]
The Central Tibetan Administration also says that millions of Chinese immigrants to the TAR are diluting the Tibetans both culturally and through intermarriage. Exile groups say that despite recent attempts to restore the appearance of original Tibetan culture to attract tourism, the traditional Tibetan way of life is now irrevocably changed. It is also reported that when Hu Yaobang, the general secretary of the Communist Party of China, visited Lhasa in 1980 he was unhappy when he found out the region was behind neighbouring provinces. Reforms were instituted, and since then the central government's policy in Tibet has granted most religious freedoms. But monks and nuns are still sometimes imprisoned^[12], and many Tibetans (mostly monks and nuns) continue to flee Tibet yearly. At the same time, many Tibetans believe projects that the PRC implement to benefit Tibet, such as the China Western Development economic plan or the Qinghai-Tibet Railway, as politically-motivated actions to consolidate central control over Tibet by facilitating militarization and Han Chinese migration while benefiting few Tibetans; they also believe the money funneled into cultural restoration projects as being aimed at attracting foreign tourists. They also say that there is still preferential treatment awarded to Han Chinese in the labor market as opposed to Tibetans.
The government of the PRC claims that the population of Tibet in 1737 was about 8 million. It claims that due to the 'backward' rule of the local theocracy, there was rapid decrease in the next two hundred years and the population in 1959 was only about one million.^[13] Today, the population of Greater Tibet is 7.3 million, of which 5 million is ethnic Tibetan, according to the 2000 census. According to the PRC the increase is viewed as the result of the abolishment of the theocracy and introduction of a modern, higher standard of living. Based on the census numbers, the PRC also rejects claims that the Tibetans are being swamped by Han Chinese; instead the PRC says that the border for Greater Tibet drawn by the government of Tibet in Exile is so large that it incorporates regions such as Xining that are not traditionally Tibetan in the first place, hence exaggerating the number of non-Tibetans.
The government of the PRC also rejects claims that the lives of Tibetans have deteriorated, pointing to rights enjoyed by the Tibetan language in education and in courts and says that the lives of Tibetans have been improved immensely compared to the Dalai Lama's rule before 1950. Benefits that are commonly quoted include: the GDP of Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) today is 30 times that before 1950; it has 22,500 km of highways, all built since 1950; all secular education in the region was created after integration into the PRC; there are 25 scientific research institutes, all built by the PRC; infant mortality has dropped from 43% in 1950 to 0.661% in 2000; life expectancy has risen from 35.5 years in 1950 to 67 in 2000; the collection and publishing of the traditional Epic of King Gesar, which is the longest epic poem in the world and had only been handed down orally before; allocation of 300 million Renminbi since the 1980s to the maintenance and protection of Tibetan monasteries^[14]. The Cultural Revolution and the cultural damage it wrought upon the entire PRC is generally condemned as a nationwide catastrophe, whose main instigators (in the PRC's view, the Gang of Four) have been brought to justice and whose recurrence is unthinkable in an increasingly modernized China. The China Western Development plan is viewed by the PRC as a massive, benevolent, and patriotic undertaking by the eastern coast to help the western parts of China, including Tibet, catch up in prosperity and living standards.

 

Mengapa Bangsa Yahudi Cerdas?

Penerima penghargaan hadiah Nobel sudah pasti bukan orang sembarangan. Apalagi untuk kategori sains, dibutuhkan kegeniusan untuk meraih hadiah bergengsi ini.

Menariknya, dari sejumlah penerima Nobel yang ada, kelompok masyarakat Yahudi yang mendominasi. Wajar jika kaum ini sering disebut sebagai kelompok masyarakat genius. Lantas, apa yang menyebabkan masyarakat Yahudi begitu cerdas?

Ada anggapan yang mengatakan bahwa kecerdasan Yahudi sudah dilatih sebelum mereka lahir. Para ibu bangsa Yahudi yang sedang hamil memiliki pemahaman bahwa anak yang dikandungnya harus sudah diberi pelajaran meski hanya lewat pendengaran.

Karena itu, tidak jarang kaum ibu bangsa Yahudi yang sedang hamil sering mendengarkan musik klasik. Alasannya, musik klasik bisa memengaruhi perkembangan otak si bayi. Sang ibu bangsa Yahudi yang sedang mengandung akan lebih sering bernyanyi dan bermain piano. Selain itu, si ibu dan suaminya juga akan banyak membeli buku matematika dan mereka menyelesaikan soal secara bersama. Si ibu akan terus mengerjakan soal-soal matematika hingga sampai waktu melahirkan.
Di samping itu, si ibu suka memakan kacang badam dan kurma bersama susu. Tengah hari makanan utamanya roti dan ikan tanpa kepala bersama salad yang dicampur dengan kacang badam dan berbagai jenis kacang-kacangan. Dalam pandangan bangsa Yahudi, daging ikan sangat baik untuk perkembangan otak. Sementara kepala ikan mengandung bahan kimia yang tidak baik yang dapat merusak perkembangan dan pertumbuhan otak anak di dalam kandungan.
Karena itu, ada semacam ”ritual” dalam bangsa Yahudi bahwa ada kewajiban bagi ibu hamil untuk mengonsumsi pil minyak ikan. Namun, sebuah penelitian menunjukkan fakta lain. Kepintaran bangsa Yahudi lebih disebabkan penyakit genetika yang disebut ashkenazi. Salah satu penyakit turunan yang berhubungan dengan otak ini justru membuat mereka memiliki skor intelligent quotient (IQ) tertinggi di dunia. Ashkenazi selain membuat cerdas juga sangat mematikan.

Setidaknya itulah yang diungkapkan dalam makalah Prefesor Gregory Cochran dan Henry Harpending yang diterbitkan pada 2005. Cochran selalu penasaran mengapa bangsa Yahudi sangat pintar. Dia menyangsikan teori seleksi alam yang menyebabkan bangsa Yahudi menjadi pintar. Cochran menelusuri sejumlah jurnal ilmiah dan dia mengungkapkan teori baru kepada Harpending, profesor kehormatan di Universitas Utah, AS, yang sebelumnya sudah melakukan penelitian.
Harpending juga anggota National Academy of Sciences. Cochran menilai gen yang rusaklah penyebab orang Yahudi menjadi lebih pintar.Kesimpulan Cochran ini membuka perdebatan baru menyangkut hubungan antara DNA dengan IQ. Lalu, Cochran (psikolog) dan Harpending (peneliti pendidikan) menyebut ashkenazi yang menyebabkan naiknya kekuatan otak. Dari hasil penelitian yang dipublikasikan pada awal 2009 oleh Departemen Antropologi Universitas Utah, AS, itu diungkapkan adanya kontroversi tentang evolusi manusia.
Kedua ilmuwan itu mendapati rata-rata IQ orang Yahudi adalah 107,5 hingga 115. Angka itu di atas rata-rata orang Eropa yang hanya mencapai 100. Setidaknya, meski berbeda 7 nilai, sudah cukup untuk membedakan tingkat kegeniusan. Karena penyakit genetika itulah, di kalangan bangsa Yahudi ada kelompok yang disebut Yahudi Ashkenazi. Ini merupakan salah satu kelompok etnik cerdas di dunia.
Menurut penelitian mereka, terdapat data yang menyebutkan IQ yang luar biasa tinggi terdapat pada Yahudi Ashkenazi (Yahudi keturunan Eropa). Rata-rata IQ orang Eropa adalah 100, sementara Yahudi keturunan Eropa rata-rata menghasilkan skor IQ berkisar 107,5–115. Hal ini memungkinkan Yahudi Ashkenazi mempunyai kemungkinan enam kali lipat untuk menjadi seorang genius daripada orang Eropa non-Yahudi.
Kedua ilmuwan itu menyatakan hasil inteligensia Yahudi Ashkenazi berasal dari tiga faktor. Pertama, akibat pengaruh tingkat historis perkimpoian yang rendah. Kedua, disebabkan penganiayaan sosial dan politik abad pertengahan yang memaksa Yahudi Ashkenazi keluar dari pekerjaan umum ke pekerjaan berbasis kecerdasan sehingga menghasilkan tingkat lebih tinggi untuk orang Yahudi.
Ketiga, akibat kecenderungan menderita penyakit yang memengaruhi pengolahan sphingolipids, molekul lemak yang mengirimkan sinyal saraf. Yahudi Ashkenazi secara tidak proporsional terkena beberapa gangguan mematikan, termasuk tay-sachs, sebuah penyakit yang melemahkan dan menimbulkan gangguan neurologis fatal dengan harapan hidup 4 tahun. Selain itu, ada penyakit otak canavan dengan harapan hidup 5 tahun dan penyakit gaucher di mana lemak menumpuk di limpa, hati, sumsum tulang, paru-paru, dan bahkan otak.

Ada juga penyakit niemann-pick tipe Adi mana bayi mengakumulasi jaringan lemak fatal dalam berbagai organ. Hal ini akan menyebabkan kerusakan otak yang mendalam dan kematian sebelum umur 2 tahun. Namun, kedua ilmuwan itu yakin bahwa berbagai penyakit mematikan yang diidap bangsa Yahudi justrumemiliki keuntungan heterozigot (suatu mekanisme yang mempertahankan keragaman kumpulan gen eukariotis dengan cara memberikan keberhasilan reproduksi).
Artinya, keuntungan ini memiliki dua salinan dari mutasi gen. Di di satu sisi menyebabkan masalah kesehatan yang serius, tetapi di sisi lain memiliki satu salinan yang menyebabkan efek kesehatan positif. Meski banyak ”penyakit turunan” yang fatal yang dialami bangsa Yahudi, mereka terus mewariskan inteligensia yang tinggi.
Cochran memberikan penegasan bahwa kecerdasan Yahudi Ashkenazi akan terus menjadi kontroversi karena ketidaknyamanan masyarakat dengan label satu kelompok etnik lebih cerdas daripada yang lain. Padahal, masyarakat bisa menerima bahwa beberapa kelompok akan lebih tinggi, pendek, atau lebih cepat. Hasil penelitian Cochran dan Harpending yang berjudul ”Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence” juga menyebutkan, populasi orang Yahudi di AS hanya sekira 3 persen dari total jumlah masyarakat AS.
Kendati begitu, mereka berhasil meraih 27 persen dari hadiah Nobel di bidang ilmu pengetahuan sejak 1950. Hal yang sama juga terjadi pada penghargaan ACM Turing Awards di mana bangsa Yahudi berhasil meraih 25 persen penghargaan yang diberikan Association for Computing Machinery karena kontribusi yang bersifat teknis pada dunia ilmu komputer.
Selain itu, tidak sedikit bangsa Yahudi yang menyandang gelar sebagai juara dunia catur. Sejumlah nama dari bangsa Yahudi yang telah meraih Nobel di antaranya Bernard Katz karena teori transmisi neuromuskuler, Andrew Schally yang meraih Nobel dalam endokrinologi. Ada juga George Wald (Nobel untuk melanjutkan pemahaman kita tentang mata manusia) dan Stanley Cohen (Nobel dalam embriologi).

Mengapa Bangsa Yahudi Cerdas?

Penerima penghargaan hadiah Nobel sudah pasti bukan orang sembarangan. Apalagi untuk kategori sains, dibutuhkan kegeniusan untuk meraih hadiah bergengsi ini.

Menariknya, dari sejumlah penerima Nobel yang ada, kelompok masyarakat Yahudi yang mendominasi. Wajar jika kaum ini sering disebut sebagai kelompok masyarakat genius. Lantas, apa yang menyebabkan masyarakat Yahudi begitu cerdas?

Ada anggapan yang mengatakan bahwa kecerdasan Yahudi sudah dilatih sebelum mereka lahir. Para ibu bangsa Yahudi yang sedang hamil memiliki pemahaman bahwa anak yang dikandungnya harus sudah diberi pelajaran meski hanya lewat pendengaran.

Karena itu, tidak jarang kaum ibu bangsa Yahudi yang sedang hamil sering mendengarkan musik klasik. Alasannya, musik klasik bisa memengaruhi perkembangan otak si bayi. Sang ibu bangsa Yahudi yang sedang mengandung akan lebih sering bernyanyi dan bermain piano. Selain itu, si ibu dan suaminya juga akan banyak membeli buku matematika dan mereka menyelesaikan soal secara bersama. Si ibu akan terus mengerjakan soal-soal matematika hingga sampai waktu melahirkan.
Di samping itu, si ibu suka memakan kacang badam dan kurma bersama susu. Tengah hari makanan utamanya roti dan ikan tanpa kepala bersama salad yang dicampur dengan kacang badam dan berbagai jenis kacang-kacangan. Dalam pandangan bangsa Yahudi, daging ikan sangat baik untuk perkembangan otak. Sementara kepala ikan mengandung bahan kimia yang tidak baik yang dapat merusak perkembangan dan pertumbuhan otak anak di dalam kandungan.
Karena itu, ada semacam ”ritual” dalam bangsa Yahudi bahwa ada kewajiban bagi ibu hamil untuk mengonsumsi pil minyak ikan. Namun, sebuah penelitian menunjukkan fakta lain. Kepintaran bangsa Yahudi lebih disebabkan penyakit genetika yang disebut ashkenazi. Salah satu penyakit turunan yang berhubungan dengan otak ini justru membuat mereka memiliki skor intelligent quotient (IQ) tertinggi di dunia. Ashkenazi selain membuat cerdas juga sangat mematikan.

Setidaknya itulah yang diungkapkan dalam makalah Prefesor Gregory Cochran dan Henry Harpending yang diterbitkan pada 2005. Cochran selalu penasaran mengapa bangsa Yahudi sangat pintar. Dia menyangsikan teori seleksi alam yang menyebabkan bangsa Yahudi menjadi pintar. Cochran menelusuri sejumlah jurnal ilmiah dan dia mengungkapkan teori baru kepada Harpending, profesor kehormatan di Universitas Utah, AS, yang sebelumnya sudah melakukan penelitian.
Harpending juga anggota National Academy of Sciences. Cochran menilai gen yang rusaklah penyebab orang Yahudi menjadi lebih pintar.Kesimpulan Cochran ini membuka perdebatan baru menyangkut hubungan antara DNA dengan IQ. Lalu, Cochran (psikolog) dan Harpending (peneliti pendidikan) menyebut ashkenazi yang menyebabkan naiknya kekuatan otak. Dari hasil penelitian yang dipublikasikan pada awal 2009 oleh Departemen Antropologi Universitas Utah, AS, itu diungkapkan adanya kontroversi tentang evolusi manusia.
Kedua ilmuwan itu mendapati rata-rata IQ orang Yahudi adalah 107,5 hingga 115. Angka itu di atas rata-rata orang Eropa yang hanya mencapai 100. Setidaknya, meski berbeda 7 nilai, sudah cukup untuk membedakan tingkat kegeniusan. Karena penyakit genetika itulah, di kalangan bangsa Yahudi ada kelompok yang disebut Yahudi Ashkenazi. Ini merupakan salah satu kelompok etnik cerdas di dunia.
Menurut penelitian mereka, terdapat data yang menyebutkan IQ yang luar biasa tinggi terdapat pada Yahudi Ashkenazi (Yahudi keturunan Eropa). Rata-rata IQ orang Eropa adalah 100, sementara Yahudi keturunan Eropa rata-rata menghasilkan skor IQ berkisar 107,5–115. Hal ini memungkinkan Yahudi Ashkenazi mempunyai kemungkinan enam kali lipat untuk menjadi seorang genius daripada orang Eropa non-Yahudi.
Kedua ilmuwan itu menyatakan hasil inteligensia Yahudi Ashkenazi berasal dari tiga faktor. Pertama, akibat pengaruh tingkat historis perkimpoian yang rendah. Kedua, disebabkan penganiayaan sosial dan politik abad pertengahan yang memaksa Yahudi Ashkenazi keluar dari pekerjaan umum ke pekerjaan berbasis kecerdasan sehingga menghasilkan tingkat lebih tinggi untuk orang Yahudi.
Ketiga, akibat kecenderungan menderita penyakit yang memengaruhi pengolahan sphingolipids, molekul lemak yang mengirimkan sinyal saraf. Yahudi Ashkenazi secara tidak proporsional terkena beberapa gangguan mematikan, termasuk tay-sachs, sebuah penyakit yang melemahkan dan menimbulkan gangguan neurologis fatal dengan harapan hidup 4 tahun. Selain itu, ada penyakit otak canavan dengan harapan hidup 5 tahun dan penyakit gaucher di mana lemak menumpuk di limpa, hati, sumsum tulang, paru-paru, dan bahkan otak.

Ada juga penyakit niemann-pick tipe Adi mana bayi mengakumulasi jaringan lemak fatal dalam berbagai organ. Hal ini akan menyebabkan kerusakan otak yang mendalam dan kematian sebelum umur 2 tahun. Namun, kedua ilmuwan itu yakin bahwa berbagai penyakit mematikan yang diidap bangsa Yahudi justrumemiliki keuntungan heterozigot (suatu mekanisme yang mempertahankan keragaman kumpulan gen eukariotis dengan cara memberikan keberhasilan reproduksi).
Artinya, keuntungan ini memiliki dua salinan dari mutasi gen. Di di satu sisi menyebabkan masalah kesehatan yang serius, tetapi di sisi lain memiliki satu salinan yang menyebabkan efek kesehatan positif. Meski banyak ”penyakit turunan” yang fatal yang dialami bangsa Yahudi, mereka terus mewariskan inteligensia yang tinggi.
Cochran memberikan penegasan bahwa kecerdasan Yahudi Ashkenazi akan terus menjadi kontroversi karena ketidaknyamanan masyarakat dengan label satu kelompok etnik lebih cerdas daripada yang lain. Padahal, masyarakat bisa menerima bahwa beberapa kelompok akan lebih tinggi, pendek, atau lebih cepat. Hasil penelitian Cochran dan Harpending yang berjudul ”Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence” juga menyebutkan, populasi orang Yahudi di AS hanya sekira 3 persen dari total jumlah masyarakat AS.
Kendati begitu, mereka berhasil meraih 27 persen dari hadiah Nobel di bidang ilmu pengetahuan sejak 1950. Hal yang sama juga terjadi pada penghargaan ACM Turing Awards di mana bangsa Yahudi berhasil meraih 25 persen penghargaan yang diberikan Association for Computing Machinery karena kontribusi yang bersifat teknis pada dunia ilmu komputer.
Selain itu, tidak sedikit bangsa Yahudi yang menyandang gelar sebagai juara dunia catur. Sejumlah nama dari bangsa Yahudi yang telah meraih Nobel di antaranya Bernard Katz karena teori transmisi neuromuskuler, Andrew Schally yang meraih Nobel dalam endokrinologi. Ada juga George Wald (Nobel untuk melanjutkan pemahaman kita tentang mata manusia) dan Stanley Cohen (Nobel dalam embriologi).

Israel's Secret Wars

Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services. lan Black, Benny Morris. Grove Weidenfeld, $24.95. After Israeli agents scooped the world intelligence "community" by coming up with a copy of Khrushchev's "crimes of Stalin" speech, after the Israelis unexpectedly thrashed the Arabs in 1967, and after commandos swooped into Uganda's Entebbe airport to rescue hostages held by Arab and German hijackers, novelists and scriptwriters fell madly in love with the idea of the Israeli secret agent. Romanticizing him as invincible, with God forever on his side, few of the writers knew what they were talking about-except John Le Carre in Little Drutiznter Girl, which authors Ian Black and Benny Morris call "the best literary treatment of Israeli intelligence." That's how shrouded in mystery and myth are the Aman (the Israel Defence Force's intelligence arm), Mossad, and Shin Bet-the three Israeli agencies described in this exhaustive and engrossing book.

Ian Black, author of Zionism and the Arabs, is The Manchester Guardian's man in Israel; Benny Morris is an Israeli diplomatic historian and journalist and the author of The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Question, 1947-1949. Despite official censorship and secrecy, they managed to base this book on secret reports, declassified files of cable traffic and interrogations, the Hebrew press, interviews, and speculation. The result is rather impressive-neither an expose nor as sensationalistic as former Mossad agent Victor Ostrovsky's recent book, By Way of Deception, which Black and Morris praise for its descriptions;
----> Al, a Mossad secret unit supposedly used for espionage operations in the United States, and Kidon, an "assassinations unit." <----
No wonder legions of writers have been drawn into the web. There's murder and sex and intrigue; Israeli spies in the Soviet Union and Soviet moles in the Israeli defense ministry; Mossad agents in Egypt, Syria, and Iraq; assassination teams and alleged death squads; and even, we are told, agents spying on the right-wing Herut and left-wing Mapam at home. And everywhere else, old scores to settle, one way or another. It's hardly surprising, then, that after reading a declassified Shin Bet interrogation of a prisoner, Israeli commentator Yigal Sama wrote: "If someone were to take everything that's been written about the Palestinians in the State of Israel since the beginning of the conflict-details of lives, families, daily routine-literature will lag far behind the archives of the security forces."

Yet the ultimate effect of this new book is to further undermine the myth of the infallibility of the Mossad and Shin Bet. As the Intifada powerfully illustrates, policy-by-intelligence has inevitable limitations. There are some political gulfs, it seems, that even the best secret agents can't bridge.
In 1973, the investigating commission scrutinizing the conduct of the Yom Kippur War ("Israel's grand intelligence failure") excoriated Aman for failing to "correctly evaluate" the warnings of Egyptian and Syrian preparation for war. Actually, there were two unsung heroes, one of them a junior intelligence officer who reported that the Egytians were set to cross the Suez Canal and was promptly rebuffed by his superiors; the other, an Aman senior officer who alerted his superior to the coming war and was told: "Stop assessing and stick to your job, which is collecting intelligence."
Israel's greatest intelligence disaster, according to the authors, was the invasion of Lebanon, of which a Shin Bet official later said, "In order to stay sane and stay alive, you had to do things that were unacceptable." There were plenty of intelligence miscalculations and blunders, as the Kahan investigating commission reported. But it was also true that just before the invasion and doubtless during the war, "intelligence facts were being selectively marshalled to suit the grand political and military design."
* There were other failures as well: the Pollard case, in which key Israelis gave the Americans just enough material to incriminate Pollard, but it was wrapped in so many lies that the Americans quickly lost faith in the Israeli version," and the Iran-contra affair, in which Mossad was "shut out of the picture completely," casting Israel "in a vital [but] a supporting role." At one point, George Shultz had to remind Robert McFarlane that "Israel's agenda is not the same as ours, and an intelligence relationship with Israel concerning Iran might not be one upon which we could fully rely"-a warning that apparently fell on deaf ears.
Black and Morris blame Israeli intelligence for failing "to read the changing political and psychological map of the enemy camp" before and after the outbreak of the Intifada in 1987. The agencies infiltrated, monitored, pursued, deployed, and smashed, yet "tactical virtuosity is one thing; "strategic blindness another." The Shin Bet, often performing brilliantly, was drawn reluctantly into the civil war. Still, its success has not diminished the bitterness felt by Palestinians or moderated their intense desire for independence. "Like the IDF," Black and Morris wisely conclude, [Shin Bet] had growing doubts as to just how long it could manage without the achievement of that most elusive of goals, a political solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict."

Mengenal G-Spot

Titik G (G-Spot) atau titik Gräfenberg adalah satu atau beberapa titik sensitif yang berada pada daerah organ reproduksi wanita yang terletak di belakang tulang kemaluan dan mengelilingi uretra. Huruf G pada G-spot diberikan dari nama seorang doktor ahli kebidanan Jerman penemu titik G-spot tersebut, Ernst Gräfenberg.
G-spot terletak di bagian ventral (dinding bagian atas) dari Miss V (vagina), di tengah-tengah jarak antara tulang kemaluan dan leher rahim. Ketika titik ini dirangsang, maka akan timbul sensasi seperti rasa buang air kecil, namun bila titik ini bekerja saat berhubungan seks maka akan menjadi rasa kenikmatan seksual (orgasme). Bagi sebagian wanita, titik ini bisa menjadi tempat pemberian stimulasi (rangsangan) utama untuk menuju tercapainya orgasme saat melakukan hubungan seksual, orgasme yang terjadi akibat pemberian stimulasi pada area G-spot lebih dikenal dengan orgasme klitoral.
Reaksi terhadap stimulasi pada area G-spot, menurut Gräfenberg sebagaimana yang ditulis Joel D. Block, Ph.D, pada buku Secrets of Better Sex, sangat bervariasi. Sebagian wanita sangat sensitif terhadap stimulasi yang diberikan, sebagian lain terlalu sensitif, dan ada pula yang tidak sensitif sama sekali. Oleh karena itu, sebaiknya pihak wanitalah yang menyentuh dan mencari tahu area G-spot dan tingkat stimulasi yang dapat mebuatnya terangsang secara maksimal, barulah kemudian memberitahukan bagian sensitifnya tersebut kepada suami/pasangan.
Sebelum Anda menggali lebih jauh dan mulai mencari lokasi G-spot serta tingkat stimulasi yang sesuai, perlu diingat bahwa otak Anda adalah organ seksual yang memegang peranan penting dalam mencapai puncak kenikmatan hubungan seks. Buatlah pikiran Anda rileks, bebas, tanpa merasa terbebani, dapat dipastikan Anda dan pasangan akan mencapai kesenangan yang sangat Anda harapkan. Selai itu, Anda dan pasangan juga harus dipenuhi dengan rasa cinta dan kasih sayang, karena keduanya merupakan pusat dari tercapainya orgasme.
Berikut ini gambar fisiologi area G-spot pada daerah organ reproduksi wanita :

Klik untuk memperbesar gambar.

A Biography of Adolf Hitler

Early Days - 1889-1908  

Adolf Hitler was born on April 20th 1889 in Braunau-am-Inn, Austria. The town is near to the Austro-German border, and his father, Alois, worked as a customs officer on the border crossing. His mother, Klara, had previously given birth to two other children by Alois, (Gustav and Ida) but they both died in their infancy.  Adolf attended school from the age of six and the family lived in various villages around the town of Linz, east of Braunau. By this time Adolf had a younger brother, Edmund, but he only lived until the age of six. In 1896, Klara gave birth to Adolf 's sister, Paula, who survived to outlive him. 

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Adolf Hitler grew up with a poor record at school and left, before completing his tuition, with an ambition to become an artist. Alois Hitler had died when Adolf was thirteen and Klara brought up Adolf and Paula on her own. Between the ages of sixteen and nineteen, young Adolf neither worked to earn his keep, nor formally studied, but had gained an interest in politics and history. During this time he unsuccessfully applied for admission to the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts.  

 The Vagabond - 1909-1913  
Klara Hitler died from cancer when Adolf was nineteen and from then onwards he had no relatives willing or able to support him. So, in 1909, he moved to Vienna in the hope of somehow earning a living. Within a year he was living in homeless shelters and eating at charity soup-kitchens. He had declined to take regular employment and took occasional menial jobs and sold some of his paintings or advertising posters whenever he could to provide sustenance.   

Munich and The Great War - 1913-1918

In 1913 Adolf Hitler, still a penniless vagrant, moved to Munich in southern Germany. At the outbreak of the First World War, in 1914, he volunteered for service in the German army and was accepted into the 16th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment . Hitler fought bravely in the war and was promoted to corporal and decorated with both the Iron Cross Second Class and First Class, the latter of which he wore until his dying day [ironically the regimental captain who recommended him for the award was Jewish]. The day of the announcement of the armistice in 1918, Hitler was in hospital recovering from temporary blindness caused by a British gas attack in the Ypres Salient. In December 1918 he returned to his regiment back in Munich.

Early Politics - 1918-1919  Between December 1918 and March 1919 Hitler worked at a prisoner-of-war camp at Traunstein before returning again to Munich. Shortly after his return he witnessed a takeover bid by local Communists who seized power before being ousted by the army. After he gave evidence at an investigation into the takeover he was asked to become part of a local army organization which was responsible for persuading returning soldiers not to turn to communism or pacifism. During his training for this tasks and during his subsequent duties he was able to hone his oratory skills. As part of his duties he was also asked to spy on certain local political groups, and during a meeting of the German Workers' Party he became so incensed by one of the speeches that he delivered a fierce harangue to the speaker. The founder of the party, Anion Drexler, was so impressed by Hitler's tirade that he asked him to join their organization. Hitler, after some thought, finally agreed to join the committee and became their seventh official in September 1919.  

The First Hofbrauhaus Speech - 1919-1920 Given responsibility for publicity and propaganda, Hitler first succeeded in attracting over a hundred people to a meeting in held October at which he delivered his first speech to a large audience. The meeting and his oratory were a great success, and subsequently in February 1920 he organized a much larger event for a crowd of nearly two thousand in the Munich Hofbrauhaus. Hitler himself was not the main speaker, but when his turn came he succeeded in calming a rowdy audience and presented a twenty-five point programme of ideas which were to be the basis of the party. The name of the party was itself changed to the National Socialist German Workers Party (or Nazi for short) on April 1st 1920. 

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Not long after the February speech he was discharged from the army. Hitler continued to expand his influence in the party and began to form a private group of thugs which he used to quash disorder at party meetings and later to break up rival party's meetings. This group subsequently became the Sturmabteilung or S.A. - Hitler's brown shirted storm troopers. He also became the regular main speaker at party events from then onwards, attracting large crowds for each meeting. During the summer of 1920 Hitler chose the swastika as the Nazi party emblem. 

Leader of the Nazi Party - 1921

By 1921 Adolf Hitler had virtually secured total control of the Nazi party, however this was not to the liking of all Nazis. In July of that year, whilst Hitler was away in Berlin, the discontent members of the party proposed a merger with a like-minded political party in Nuremburg in the hope that this would dilute Hitler's influence. On hearing the news of the proposed merger, Hitler rushed back to Munich to confront the party and threatened to resign. The other members were aware that Hitler was bringing in the lion's share of funds into the organization, from the collections following his speeches at meetings and from other sympathetic sources. Thus they knew they couldn't afford his resignation. Hitler then proceeded to turn the tables on the committee members and forced them to accept him as formal leader of the party with dictatorial powers.

The Beer Hall Putsch - 1923 Up to November 1923 Hitler continued to build up the strength of the Nazi Party. During this time he also plotted to overthrow the German Weimar Republic by force. On November 8th 1923 Hitler led an attempt to take over the local Bavarian Government in Munich in an action that became known as the "Beer Hall Putsch." Despite initially kidnapping the Bavarian officials in the Buergerbraukeller beer hall in Munich and proclaiming a new regime using their names, the coup was not successful. The officials were allowed to escape and re-gain control of the police and the armed forces. The coup was ended on the morning of November 9th, when a column of three thousand SA men headed by Hitler and General Ludendorff (one of the most senior generals of the First World War) were halted on their way to the centre of Munich by armed police. After a brief gunfight, only General Ludendorff and his aide had made it through to the central Plaza, where they were arrested. Hitler had fled the scene and was later arrested and charged with treason. After his trial for treason he was sentenced to five years in Landsberg prison, however he had successfully used the trial itself to gain publicity for himself and his ideas. During his term in prison Hitler began dictating his thoughts and philosophies to Rudolf Hess which became the book "Mein Kampf" (My Struggle).  

Re-Building the Nazi Party - 1924-1932 Hitler was released from Landsberg prison in December 1924 after serving only six months of his sentence. At that time, the Nazi Party and its associated newspapers were banned by the government and Hitler himself was forbidden from making public speeches. The support for National Socialism was waning throughout Germany, their voting figures in elections fell from almost two million in 1924 to 810,000 by 1928 (this gave them only 12 out of a total of 491 representatives in Parliament). However at the same time, Hitler succeeded in increasing the party membership and developed the organization of the party throughout Germany with the help of Gregor Strasser who was responsible for the organization of the Nazi Party in northern Germany. During this period Hitler also created the infamous SS (Schutzstaffel) which was initially intended to be Hitler's bodyguard under the leadership of Heinrich Himmler.  

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The collapse of the Wall St. stock exchange in 1929 led to a world wide recession which hit Germany especially hard. All loans to Germany from foreign countries dried up, German industrial production slumped and millions were made unemployed. These conditions were beneficial to Hitler and his Nazi campaigning. By July of the following year Chancellor Bruening, without a parliamentary majority in the Reichstag, was unable to pass a new finance bill and was forced to ask President Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag and call for new elections for the coming September. Hitler campaigned hard for the Nazi candidates, promising the public a way out of their current hardship. When the results of the election were announced, the Nazi Party had won 6.4 million votes which made them the second largest party in the Reichstag. At this time Hitler also began to win over the support of both the army and the big industrialists, the latter contributing substantially to the finances of the Nazi Party.  

Hitler Versus Hindenburg - 1932 In February 1932 Hitler decided to stand against Hindenburg in the forthcoming Presidential election. In order to do this he became a German citizen on 25th February 1932. The result of the election on 13th March 1932 gave Hindenburg 49.6 percent of the vote and Hitler 30.1 percent (two other candidates stood). As Hindenburg failed to win a majority a second election was called. The result of the second election gave Hindenburg 53 percent and Hitler 36.8 percent (one other candidate stood). Thus Hindenburg was re-elected to office and Hitler was forced to wait for another opportunity to win power. 

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Chancellor Bruening lasted in office until June 1932, unable to maintain popular support his government resigned due to pressure from the President, who had been advised by an influential General called Schleicher. General Schleicher had plotted the overthrow of the cabinet in conspiracy with the Nazis. Power then passed to a Presidential cabinet headed by a new Chancellor, Franz von Papen. New Reichstag elections were also set for the end of July.  

Nazis Become the Largest Party - 1932 In the July elections, the Nazi Party won 13,745,000 votes which gave them 230 out of the 608 seats in the Reichstag. Although the Nazis were the largest party, they were still short of a majority. Hitler, however, demanded that he be made Chancellor but was offered only the position of Vice-Chancellor in a coalition government, which he refused.

Hitler Becomes Chancellor - 1932-1933

In September 1932, the Nazi members of the Reichstag, together with support form the Center Party elected the prominent Nazi Herman Goering as President of the Reichstag (equivalent to House Speaker). Using his new position, Goering managed to prevent the Chancellor from presenting an order to dissolve the Reichstag, whilst a vote of no confidence in the Chancellor and his government was passed. Thus having forced the resignation of the new government, the Reichstag allowed its own dissolution. Although losing 34 of their seats in the following election, the Nazis retained enough influence to assure that Papen would be unable to form a new Government and the Chancellor resigned on 17th of November 1932. After Papen's resignation, Hindenburg still refused to appoint Hitler as chancellor fearing that a Hitler Government would become a dictatorship. The President then tried to re-install Papen as Chancellor, but Papen was unable to gain the support of his own cabinet, including Schleicher who was Minister of Defence. President Hindenburg then appointed Schleicher as Chancellor, the latter having assured the President that he could get the support of the Nazis in the Reichstag. However, Hitler and his Nazi party had other ideas, and Schleicher found that he was unable to win the support of any of the parties in the Reichstag and was forced to resign as Chancellor on January 28th 1933. Finally on January 30th, 1933 President Hindenburg decided to appoint Hitler Chancellor in a coalition government with Papen as Vice-Chancellor.

The Burning of the Reichstag - February 1933 The penultimate step towards Adolf Hitler gaining complete control over the destiny of Germany were taken on the night of 27th February 1933 when the Reichstag was destroyed by fire. The fire was almost certainly planned by the Nazis, Goebbels and Goering in particular. A Dutch communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, was made scapegoat for the fire, but the main outcome was that Hitler was given an excuse to have all the Communist deputies of the Reichstag arrested, and managed to obtain a decree from President Hindenburg giving the Nazi goverment powers to inter anyone they thought was a threat to the nation. Furthermore the Presidential decree allowed the Nazi government to suppress the free speech of its political opponents. Despite all these advantages, in the elections of March 5th 1933, the Nazis only managed to acheive 44 percent of the votes. Even with the suppression of the Communist deputies, Hitler was still short of an overall majority and nowhere near the two-thirds majority needed for any change in the German constitution.

The Enabling Act - March 1933 The Enabling Act, placed before the Reichstag on 23rd of March 1933 was to allow the powers of legislation to be taken away from the Reichstag and transferred to Hitler's cabinet for a period of four years. The act required a two-thirds majority, but passed easily with the support of the Center and Nationalist parties and the suppression of all Communist deputies and several Social Democrats. Thus dictatorial powers were finally conferred, legally, on Adolf Hitler. By July 14th Hitler had proclaimed a law stating that the Nazi Party was to be the only political party allowed in Germany. The Nazification of Germany was underway. All non-Nazi organizations were disbanded, including political parties and trade unions. The individual German states were stripped of any autonomous powers they might have had and Nazi officials were installed as state governors.

The Night of the Long Knives - 1934

After the initial rise to power of the Nazis, many of them, including the head of the SA Ernst Roehm, wanted to see a further change in the power structure of Germany by taking over control of big businesses and installing the SA as the main army of Germany with the existing army subordinate to it. Hitler however thought differently and wanted to keep the German economy in good shape, reduce unemployment and enable him to quickly re-arm the Wehrmacht. To Hitler, the SA was purely a political force not a military one. Also the ageing President Hindenburg would not survive much longer and Hitler needed the support of the Army if he was to be named as Hindenburg's successor. In May of 1934 Hitler proposed to the chiefs of the Army and the Navy that he would suppress the SA and at the same time expand the Army and Navy if they would support him as the successor to Hindenburg. The chiefs of the forces readily agreed to Hitler's endorsement. In June Hitler ordered the SA to go on leave for the entire month. However, by that time the rowdiness and lawlessness perpetrated by Nazi thugs had grown to a point where President Hindenburg and his senior generals were considering declaring a state of marshal law and Hitler was threatened with this recourse if he didn't do something to curb these excesses. These threats, coupled with rumours generated by Himmler and Goering concerning Roehm's loyalty to the Fuehrer and an impending coup against Hitler, finally prompted Hitler to order Himmler and Goering to take action against the leaders of the SA. On June 30th 1934 Himmler's SS and Goering's special police arrested and executed the leaders of the SA, including Ernst Roehm, and many others not connected with the SA, but against whom the Nazi leaders had a score to settle. These others included General von Schleicher, the former Chancellor.

The Death of Hindenburg August 1934 President Hindenburg died on August 2nd 1934. Hitler had already agreed with the Cabinet that upon Hindenburg's death the offices of President and Chancellor would be combined. The last wishes of Hindenburg were that upon his death the monarchy should be restored. Hitler managed to suppress these wishes and did not publish the President's will. Having already ensured the support of the Army, Hitler went a step further by making the whole of the armed forces swear an oath of loyalty to him personally. A plebiscite was then held for the public to decide on whether they approved of the changes already made - 90% of voters gave their approval. Thus Hitler had become "Fuehrer and Reich Chancellor" and the title of President was then abolished.

"Nazification" - 1934-1937
During the years following Hitler's consolidation of power he set about the "Nazification" of Germany and its release from the armament restrictions of the Versailles Treaty. Censorship was extreme and covered all aspects of life including the press, films, radio, books and even art. Trade unions were suppressed and replaced with the centralised "Labour Front", which didn't actually function as a trade union. The churches were persecuted and ministers who preached non-Nazi doctrine were frequently arrested by the Gestapo and carted off to concentration camps. All youth associations were abolished and re-formed as a single entity as the Hitler Youth organisation. The Jewish population was increasingly persecuted and ostracised from society and under the Nuremburg Laws of September 1935 Jews were no longer considered to be German citizens and therefore no longer had any legal rights. Jews were no longer allowed to hold public office, not allowed to work in the civil-service, the media, farming, teaching, the stock exchange and eventually barred from practising law or medicine. Hostility towards Jews from other Germans was encouraged and even shops began to deny entry to Jews. From a very early stage, Hitler geared the German economy towards war. He appointed Dr. Hjalmar Schacht minister of economics with instructions to secretly increase armaments production. This was financed in various ways, including using confiscated funds, printing bank notes and mostly by producing government bonds and credit notes.
In September 1936, Goering took over most of Schacht's duties in preparing the war economy and instituted the Four-Year Plan, which was intended to make Germany self-sufficient in four years. This put Germany on a total war economy and entailed strict control of imports, materials prices and wages as well as the creation of factories and industrial plants to produce essential war materials (e.g. synthetic rubber, fuels and steel). Workers were low paid and their freedom to move between jobs was increasingly restricted. Even the workers' recreation time was strictly controlled through the "Strength Through Joy" organisation. Hitler was the law when it came to the judicial system and had the ultimate say over legal actions of any kind. Any judge who was not favourable to the Nazi regime was dismissed, and a "Special Court" for political crimes and a "Peoples Court" for accusations of treason were introduced. Both of these courts were controlled by the Nazi Party and an unfortunate defendant was extremely unlikely to get a fair trial.  

Breaking the Versailles Treaty - 1934-1937 Hitler ordered the army to be trebled in size, from the 100,000 man Versailles Treaty limit, to 300,000 men by October of 1934. This was initially ordered to be carried out under the utmost secrecy. Admiral Raeder, the chief of the navy, was given orders to begin the construction of large warships, way above the maximum size decreed by the Versailles Treaty. The construction of submarines, also forbidden by the Treaty, had already begun secretly by building parts in foreign dockyards ready for assembly. In addition, Goering had also been tasked by Hitler with the training of air force pilots and the design of military aircraft. In March 1935 Hitler decided to take a gamble and test the resolve of Britain and France by authorising Goering to reveal to a British official the existence of the Luftwaffe (German Air Force). Even though this was a direct challenge to the Versailles Treaty, there was little reaction (its existence was already known anyway). Thus Hitler was given encouragement to take further steps. A few days later, Hitler took a further gamble and declared openly the introduction of military service and the creation of an army with 36 divisions (approx. 1/2 million men). Again, a weak reaction from Britain and France allowed Hitler the comfort of knowing that his gamble had paid off. At the same time that Hitler was increasing the strength of the armed forces, he was also following a policy of making speeches proclaiming a desire for peace and the folly of war. He also announced that he had no intention of annexing Austria or re-militarising the Rhineland and would respect all the territorial clauses of the Versailles Treaty. Hitler also announced that he was prepared to mutually disarm the heaviest of weapons and limit the strength of the German Navy. A quote from Hitler at that time: "Whoever lights the torch of war in Europe can wish for nothing but chaos."

The Re-militarisation of the Rhineland - 1936

On March 7th 1936 a small force of German troops marched across the Rhine bridges into the demilitarised areas of Germany towards Aachen, Trier and Saarbruecken. Once again neither the French nor British made any move to counter the flagrant breach of the Locarno Pact of 1925, which had been signed willingly by Germany and was supposed to keep these areas west of the Rhine free from German military units. The lack of French reaction was in spite of the fact that the small German force was vastly outnumbered by the French army near the border. Immediately following the re-militarisation of the Rhineland areas, Hitler once again preached in public his desire for peace throughout Europe and offered to negotiate new non-aggression pacts with several countries including France and Belgium. At the same time rapid construction of German defensive fortifications began along the French and Belgian frontiers. Meanwhile Hitler's popularity within Germany was boosted, his position as leader was strengthened and his control over the army generals was secured.

Weakening of Austrian Security and the Birth of the Axis - 1936 The security that Hitler had gained for Germany from the military stronghold in the Rhineland meant less security for those countries in Central Europe (e.g. Austria and Czechoslovakia) who were reliant on a swift response from France in the event of German aggression. This led the Austrian Government, headed by Dr. Schuschnigg, during the summer of 1936, to begin a course of appeasement of Hitler by, for example, giving Austrian Nazis influential positions within the government in return for a pledge from Hitler to confirm his recognition of Austrian sovereignty. The position of Austria was further undermined in October 1936 when the Italian dictator, Mussolini, who had previously pledged to maintain Austrian independence, formed an alliance with Hitler. This alliance, which became known as the Rome-Berlin Axis had been formed following the German and Italian support of fellow fascist, General Franco, in the Spanish Civil War. The Axis partnership included an agreement on a common foreign policy between the two countries.

  
    

  

Enam Posisi Bercinta Favorit Perempuan

Setidaknya ada enam posisi bercinta yang disukai perempuan karena lebih nyaman dan berpeluang besar mengantarkan orgasme.
Pertama adalah posisi di atas. Jika perempuan meminta giliran berkendara, jangan berprasangka superior dan sejenisnya. Biasanya, karena perempuan itu dalam kondisi puncak dan penuh energi.
Pada posisi ini perempuan bisa memutuskan ingin mencapai orgasme klitoris atau jelajah G-spot.
Kedua adalah posisi duduk. Gaya bercinta ini banyak dilakukan saat makan malam romantis yang ternyata kelewat bergairah.
Si perempuan duduk di kursi yang sedikit lebih tinggi sehingga sejajar dengan posisi pria berdiri saat penetrasi. Posisi bercinta seperti ini mempercepat rangsang G spot, namun juga berpeluang ejakulasi dini. Karena posisi bercinta seperti ini dilakukan bukan di tempat tidur, sensasi spontanitas lebih terasa. Apalagi jika dilakukan di tempat umum.
Posisi klasik misionaris, alias perempuan di bawah. Posisi ini tergolong legendaris dan menciptakan kedekatan amat sangat dengan pasangan.
Posisi ini mutlak memerlukan dukungan tempat tidur nyaman. Ini adalah posisi yang memungkinkan seluruh aktifitas fisik, mencium, menyentuh, meremas, main mata dan pijatan atas bawah dapat dilakukan dalam ritme yang diinginkan.
Posisi keempat adalah CAT atau coital alignment technique, tergolong sederhana. Pada prinsipnya seperti posisi misionaris, namun si pria memajukan badannya beberapa sentimeter, sehingga Mr Dick lebih dulu menyentuh klitoris. Si pria meluruskan kakinya dan perempuan menaik-turunkan pelvis.
Posisi kelima adalah doggy style. Gaya ini umumnya merupakan salah satu favorit pria. Karena lebih mudah menemukan G spot perempuan. Dan dengan sedikit usaha saja, si perempuan bisa orgasme berulangkali.
Penetrasi dari samping ini bisa menyentuh G spot wanita dari berbagai sudut. Lagi pula, doggy style secara alami dapat membuat Anda dan pasangan lebih liar dalam bercinta.

Posisi keenam yang menjadi kesukaan perempuan adalah menyamping berhadapan. Karena badan hanya ditumpukan pada satu sisi, proses penetrasi bisa lebih lama dan pelan-pelan. Posisi ini dianjurkan untuk pria yang mudah ejakulasi.
Untuk gaya ini diperlukan lebih banyak gerakan pelvis perempuan. Gunanya, agar sensasi bercinta tetap terjaga dan si pria tetap ereksi keras dan lama.

Bermuda Triangle

The Bermuda Triangle, also known as the Devil's Triangle, is a region in the western part of the North Atlantic Ocean where a number of aircraft and surface vessels allegedly disappeared mysteriously. Popular culture has attributed these disappearances to the paranormal or activity by extraterrestrial beings.^[1] Documented evidence indicates that a significant percentage of the incidents were inaccurately reported or embellished by later authors, and numerous official agencies have stated that the number and nature of disappearances in the region is similar to that in any other area of ocean.

The boundaries of the triangle cover the Straits of Florida, the Bahamas and the entire Caribbean island area and the Atlantic east to the Azores. The more familiar triangular boundary in most written works has as its points somewhere on the Atlantic coast of Miami, San Juan, Puerto Rico; and the mid-Atlantic island of Bermuda, with most of the accidents concentrated along the southern boundary around the Bahamas and the Florida Straits.
The area is one of the most heavily traveled shipping lanes in the world, with ships crossing through it daily for ports in the Americas, Europe, and the Caribbean Islands. Cruise ships are also plentiful, and pleasure craft regularly go back and forth between Florida and the islands. It is also a heavily flown route for commercial and private aircraft heading towards Florida, the Caribbean, and South America from points north.

The earliest allegation of unusual disappearances in the Bermuda area appeared in a September 16, 1950 Associated Press article by Edward Van Winkle Jones.^[2] Two years later, Fate magazine published "Sea Mystery At Our Back Door",^[3] a short article by George X. Sand covering the loss of several planes and ships, including the loss of Flight 19, a group of five U.S. Navy TBM Avenger bombers on a training mission. Sand's article was the first to lay out the now-familiar triangular area where the losses took place. Flight 19 alone would be covered in the April 1962 issue of American Legion Magazine.^[4] It was claimed that the flight leader had been heard saying "We are entering white water, nothing seems right. We don't know where we are, the water is green, no white." It was also claimed that officials at the Navy board of inquiry stated that the planes "flew off to Mars." Sand's article was the first to suggest a supernatural element to the Flight 19 incident. In the February 1964 issue of Argosy, Vincent Gaddis's article "The Deadly Bermuda Triangle" argued that Flight 19 and other disappearances were part of a pattern of strange events in the region.^[5] The next year, Gaddis expanded this article into a book, Invisible Horizons.^[6]
Others would follow with their own works, elaborating on Gaddis's ideas: John Wallace Spencer (Limbo of the Lost, 1969, repr. 1973);^[7] Charles Berlitz (The Bermuda Triangle, 1974);^[8] Richard Winer (The Devil's Triangle, 1974),^[9] and many others, all keeping to some of the same supernatural elements outlined by Eckert

Triangle writers have used a number of supernatural concepts to explain the events. One explanation pins the blame on leftover technology from the mythical lost continent of Atlantis. Sometimes connected to the Atlantis story is the submerged rock formation known as the Bimini Road off the island of Bimini in the Bahamas, which is in the Triangle by some definitions. Followers of the purported psychic Edgar Cayce take his prediction that evidence of Atlantis would be found in 1968 as referring to the discovery of the Bimini Road. Believers describe the formation as a road, wall, or other structure, though geologists consider it to be of natural origin.^[18]
Other writers attribute the events to UFOs.^[19] This idea was used by Steven Spielberg for his science fiction film Close Encounters of the Third Kind, which features the lost Flight 19 aircrews as alien abductees.
Charles Berlitz, author of various books on anomalous phenomena, lists several theories attributing the losses in the Triangle to anomalous or unexplained forces.